Cyberbullying: Gender-Based Violence in Reverted Muslim Women

Introduction

Gender-based violence in the digital environment has become a concerning phenomenon affecting women from various communities, and Muslim revert women are no exception. According to the National Observatory of Technology and Society (Observatorio Nacional de Tecnología y Sociedad, 2022), 54% of women have experienced assaults on their honor and privacy in the digital environment. However, for Muslim revert women, the situation is further complicated due to the intersection of gender violence and Islamophobic attitudes, a growing phenomenon exacerbated by the proliferation of social media (Fuentes-Lara & Arcila-Calderón, 2023).

Islamophobia manifests through the spread of stereotypes and prejudices contributing to a discriminatory discourse. In this context, the veil or hijab is used as a tool to justify and (re)victimize Muslim women. Jasmine Zine (2006), a pioneer in researching this type of discrimination, coined the term “gendered Islamophobia.” She defines it as a specific form of ethno-religious and racialized discrimination targeting Muslim women, arising from historically ingrained negative stereotypes, and grounded in both individual and systemic forms of oppression. Additionally, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, in its report on minorities and discrimination (2019), emphasizes the uniqueness of Islamophobia, especially concerning gender, highlighting the need to address this issue specifically and contextually.

As mentioned, social media has accelerated the spread of gender Islamophobia. These platforms contribute to the issue by disseminating misinformation and stereotypes, including false representations of Muslim women’s attire, gender roles, and empowerment levels. Furthermore, social media is prone to the proliferation of hate speech, manifested through offensive comments and verbal attacks directed at Muslim women, thereby intensifying gender Islamophobia (Asociación Marroquí, 2022).

In this case, online hate speech received by Muslim revert women takes various forms, from offensive comments (traitor, mafia member...) to threats and stigmatization directed specifically at women (Soleimani, 2023). These expressions not only contribute to the creation of a hostile digital environment but also have severe consequences for the safety and well-being of women, especially those who have chosen to embrace the Islamic faith.

Gender-based hate speech not only perpetuates harmful stereotypes but also promotes discrimination, even inciting physical or psychological violence (Mateeva, 2022). In the digital context, this hate speech targeting Muslim revert women becomes an integral component of digital gender-based violence. Beyond widespread attacks, these women face derogatory labels such as “sexist” or “fucking moro”, demonstrating a clear intersection between Islamophobia and sexism (Eckert et al., 2020).

What further exacerbates the situation is that these women not only endure the hatred from Islamophobic movements but also face rejection from their own community and questioning of their faith by the Muslim community (Civila & Jaramillo-Dent, 2022). This double stigma, originating from both outside and within their social circle, creates an additional burden for these women, who seek to share their experiences on social media as a form of expression and resistance. Reverted Muslim women find themselves at the intersection of two worlds. This internal struggle further underscores the urgent need for a comprehensive approach to address the unique challenges they face.

Despite Islamophobia being a current subject of study, there is a scarcity of research specifically addressing the discrimination faced by Muslim revert women or those in the process of conversion. Therefore, it becomes crucial to comprehensively address this issue to fully understand the challenges these women face on digital platforms and work towards creating a more inclusive and respectful online environment.