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Top1. Introduction
Possessing a solid lexicon foundation may not merely expedite the learning curve in later phases of language learning but also facilitate learning the four English skills (i.e., listening, speaking, reading, and writing). Schmitt (2000) proposed that rich vocabulary is indispensable to successful second/foreign language learning. Furthermore, spelling, the art of correctly assembling words from their letters, is regarded as one of the essential components of developing successful reading and writing skills because being confident at spelling leads to subsequent confidence in all aspects of literacy and English learning. In addition, the ability to understanding word relationships has been proven to aid comprehension skills. The academic literature is clear that spelling is closely-linked to reading, writing, and comprehension because spelling is essential to the process of accurately decoding the foreign language text and retrieving its meaning (Ehri & Rosenthal, 2007).
However, in Taiwan, current vocabulary instruction often remains teacher-centered and the educators teach with rote-learning strategies, which do not motivate learners (Lin, 2015). Due to the inadequate teaching of vocabulary and tedious spelling practice, many English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners consider that acquiring a large vocabulary and spelling those vocabulary words correctly are their most significant hurdles (Gordani, 2013).
Without a large vocabulary, language users cannot perform at high levels of language proficiency (Li & Macgregor, 2010). The Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) is the most cost-effective and readily available way of evaluating employee English skills in Asian nations today (Prolingua Executive Language Services, 2000). In addition, TOEIC is the benchmark language proficiency test evaluating how competitive language users will be in their future careers or educational endeavors (TOEIC, 2016).
Practically all the colleges in Taiwan require TOEIC proficiency as an exit requirement for graduation (Pan, 2014). Moreover, some high schools also follow this trend, encouraging students to take TOEIC because high grades can open the door to admittance at more prestigious universities. For vocational high school students, in particular, passing TOEIC can either benefit their future employment or improve college enrollment opportunities (Chen & Chung, 2008). Smartphones are particularly popular among teenagers (Işiklar, Şar, & Durmuşcelebi, 2013), using them for recreation and socialization and are thus technology that is easily available for learning.
Taiwanese high school students use mobile phones not merely to communicate with others but also to play Game-Based Mobile Applications (GBMA) for entertainment (Wang et al., 2017). Mobile phones quickly become the inseparable companions of young people (Wang et al., 2014). There is little evidence of high school students using apps for language learning.
Some studies (Shahriza, Hawa, & Hussin 2006; Woo, White, & Lai, 2016) have explored the usage frequency of mobile devices, yet most of the studies focused mainly on the users’ behaviors and the aspects of psychology rather than language learning. Few studies have addressed the effects of usage frequency of mobile learning apps in the field of teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL), especially in EFL contexts.
With the high penetration of mobile devices, students are accustomed to using smartphone applications, known as “apps” (Wang et al., 2014). Several studies (Attewell, 2005; Liu, Dousse, Wang, & Saipulla, 2008; Uğur, Ünİversİte, & Bakiş, 2015) have found that smartphone use during class time is commonplace. Furthermore, Tsai, Yu, and Hsiao (2012), as well as Chiu, Kao, and Reynolds (2012), recommended educational games for language instruction and found Game-Based Language Learning (GBLL) to improve learner motivation significantly and to enhance performance. To be more specific, Khaddage and Knezek (2011) concluded that educational GBMAs may allow for active engagement by learners and thus provide an approach to instruction in education.