Theoretical Framework
SDT posits that individuals harbor three distinct psychological needs and situates individual motivation along a continuous spectrum progressing from controlled regulation to autonomous regulation (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Internal regulation, sometimes referred to as intrinsic motivation, denotes actions driven by personal interest and enjoyment. In contrast, external regulation entails behaviors and actions performed to attain rewards or avoid punishment (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
Learning engagement is generally defined as students devoting resources and effort toward achieving their learning objectives (Schunk & Mullen, 2012). Previous research has delineated three general categories of engagement: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. Behavioral engagement refers to students participating in learning activities, emotional engagement pertains to students experiencing or expressing emotions, and cognitive engagement involves students investing mental resources in their learning (Fredricks et al., 2004), manifesting comprehension, transfer, or divergent thinking about knowledge (Rotgans & Schmidt, 2011).
Considerable research has delved into the influence of motivation on engagement across diverse contexts. For instance, studies by Skinner et al. (2008) suggested that students with high levels of intrinsic motivation exhibit greater levels of emotional engagement. Recent reviews, such as the one conducted by Amarilla et al. (2022), also indicated that motivation positively impacts behavioral engagement in online environments. In the realm of cognitive engagement, researchers have drawn similar conclusions, asserting that learners with internal motivational regulation exhibit higher levels of cognitive engagement in courses (Lan & Hew, 2020; Rotgans & Schmidt, 2011).