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Information and communication technologies (ICT) have played a pivotal role in facilitating knowledge acquisition and sharing in organizations (Alavi & Leidner, 2001). Traditionally, knowledge has been considered a pyramid on four building blocks including data, information, knowledge, and wisdom (Jennex & Bartczak, 2013). Advancements in ICT have motivated knowledge management (KM) scholars to revise this pyramid. For example, Jennex (2017) added a new component – big data, IoT (Internet of Things), and business intelligence – which “reflects the way technology innovation is radically addressing societal and organizational needs for more data and more actionable intelligence” (p. 75).
In higher education, the advancements of Internet and ICT have enabled distance education, where teaching and learning take place online through network technologies. Yet, educational institutions continue to face challenges associated with technical expertise and infrastructure in achieving effective learning outcomes (Cho & Berge, 2002). With the widespread impact of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) and the in-person classes moved to alternative modes (i.e., online, distance learning), educational institutions face a new normal characterized by the omnipresent and increasing reliance on ICT. With more than 1.2 billion students in 186 countries affected by school closures in spring 2020 due to COVID-19 (Li & Lalani, 2020), the challenges in distance education become more evident.
Among the populations of students switching to online learning during COVID-19, underserved minority students are experiencing a higher level of difficulty and a lower level of technology readiness (Frazier, 2020). An underserved student population typically includes low-income students, racial and ethnic minority students, and first-generation college students (FGCS). In particular, with parents having no post-secondary education experience, FGCS were found at high risk of attrition during freshman year and suffering from low graduation rate (Lauff & Ingles, 2015). Higher education institutions, particularly four-year institutions, have struggled to develop successful strategies to mitigate the gaps in the college persistence of FGCS (Schwartz et al., 2018). Lacking technical resources and digital skills may leave FGCS feeling overwhelmed in the online learning environment during COVID-19. Therefore, understanding their barriers in online learning has become an important step to achieving digital inclusion in distance education.
Following previous research (Notley, 2009; Sen, 2000), we define digital inclusion in distance education as utilization of ICT to participate in learning activities, measured by the level of ICT access and proficiency. Digital inclusion is closely related to digital divide, which focuses on the gap in technology access and use. Such gap remains a concern to many countries. A study of 28 European Union countries suggests that digital divide within each member country exists, even for those European countries that are outperforming their counterparts in terms of digital development (Cruz-Jesus et al., 2016). In the United States, although many aspects of the digital divide have narrowed over time, the digital lives of lower- and higher-income Americans remain drastically different. According to a recent report, more than 40% of adults with annual household incomes below $30,000 do not have broadband services or a traditional computer and roughly 30% do not own a smartphone. In comparison, these technologies are nearly ubiquitous among adults in households earning $100,000 or more annually (Anderson & Kumar, 2019). Prior to COVID-19, those without Internet access used to fill the gap by using free Internet in public places. During COVID-19, the stay-at-home orders and social distancing mandate make it virtually and physically impossible for students using these free resources, at least in the short term (Lee, 2020).