This chapter critically explores the historical development of victimology, tracing its evolution from classical to contemporary criminological theories. It emphasizes the belated scholarly recognition of victims within criminal acts, considering enduring crime as inherent in human existence. The exploration delves into the deconstruction of ideal and non-ideal victim concepts, surveying the emergence of victimology alongside criminology. The transformative shift from causal victim roles to theoretical frameworks in the 1970s is highlighted. The chapter acknowledges the evolving landscape of victimization, particularly in cybercrimes, advocating for a nuanced perspective and adaptive policies. It narrows the focus to the intricate relationship between technology and contemporary victimization, emphasizing the continuum between digital and physical realms.
TopIntroduction
The emergence of the scientific study of victims is significantly late compared to the existence of the victim as an object of crime. From classical to contemporary scholars (Durkheim, 1895; Hirschi, 1969; Sutherland, 1939; Wemmers, 2010), the idea that crime is as old as humanity has been supported. This assertion urges us to extend the argument by acknowledging that victimization has endured throughout history. Though crime is an age-old phenomenon, it is only recently that researchers have shifted their focus toward the individuals impacted by criminal acts (Wemmers, 2010).
In this chapter, we collectively embark on a deconstruction of the concepts of ideal and non-ideal victims, unraveling the historical roots and societal constructions that shape our understanding of victimhood. The journey begins with an exploration of the term “victim”, tracing its origins to the 17th century and its Latin roots denoting a creature offered to the gods. Fattah's (2010) inquiry into the significance of the term within criminology raises pivotal questions about its nature, whether it is a label, a condition, or a socially constructed concept. Strobl's (2004; 2010) concept of 'becoming a victim' introduces the idea that victimhood is not solely based on experienced injuries but involves social recognition and the adoption of a victim's role.
As we navigate the depths of the victim's label, Mendelsohn (1956), and Christie's (1986) perspectives on the ideal victim highlight criteria such as fragility, lack of accountability, and absence of personal relationships with offenders. However, this ideal victim construct poses challenges, as circumstances not aligning with this image may hinder recognition and support for victims. Miers' (1990) call for a “critical victimology” urges us to scrutinize the implications of labeling individuals as victims, emphasizing the potential negative effects of perpetuating stereotypes.
A historical overview of the emergence of victimology reveals its roots alongside criminology, initially focused on understanding victims' influence on offenders. The victim's role was perceived as causal, and early victimology earned designations like positivist victimology or 'the art of blaming the victim.' Victimization surveys marked a shift in methodology, aiming to overcome limitations of official data, providing valuable insights into the dark figure of unreported crime and victim characteristics.
Moving beyond victim blaming, the 1970s witnessed a transformative phase in victimology, prompted by critiques, particularly from feminist movements. The discourse shifted towards risk exposure, vulnerability, and opportunity. The Lifestyle Model (Hindelang, Gottfredson & Garofalo, 1978), Routine Activity Approach (Cohen & Felson, 1979), and Opportunity Model (Cohen, Kluegel & Land, 1981) emerged as influential theoretical frameworks, explaining variations in victimization risks. These models continue to shape our understanding of victimization dynamics, even in emerging forms like cyber-victimization.
The chapter concludes by acknowledging the evolving landscape of victimization, particularly in the realm of cybercrimes, necessitating a revitalization of criminology and victimology. As we explore these topics, we advocate for a nuanced perspective that considers the diverse experiences of victims, challenges societal norms, and embraces comprehensive strategies to address contemporary challenges in victimization. We embark on a comprehensive exploration of the intricate relationship between technology and various forms of victimization in our contemporary society. Our journey delves into the multifaceted challenges arising from the convergence of traditional and novel criminal activities, shaped by the ever-evolving technological landscape.
Beginning with a statistical analysis of global online connectivity trends, we unravel the profound impact of technology on societal interactions, especially magnified by events like the Covid-19 pandemic. Leveraging Routine Activity Theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979) adapted to the digital realm, we dissect the heightened risk exposure in online activities and underscore the critical role of cybersecurity practices and online lifestyle choices.