This chapter aims to analyze the teaching methodologies, purpose, and contents for the implementation of face-to-face science diplomacy courses at postgraduate programs in Latin America. For this, three focus groups were conducted with nine experts in the area. The results found that science diplomacy courses can contribute to the design of better policies because of collaborative work between actors from different areas; furthermore, it contributes to the development of countries in terms of science, technology, and innovation; and it constitutes an ideal scenario for the promotion of interdisciplinary since these courses are not designed specifically for one area of knowledge. Regarding teaching, the importance of approaching the study of science diplomacy from a positive and contextualized approach stands out. Finally, recommended topics include the theory of international relations and foreign policy, and the history of science as a frame of reference for the study of ecosystems of science, technology, and innovation and the development of soft skills.
TopIntroduction
Science diplomacy is a growing field of study, research and training. It is a practice that reinforces the interconnections between education, science, innovation, technology and international affairs on behalf of national, regional and global challenges and needs. Science diplomacy does not have a definition agreed upon by all the actors who practise and study it, but the Royal Society/AAAS (2010) tripartition of aspects is generally accepted: diplomacy for science, science for diplomacy and science in diplomacy.
Science diplomacy promotes meaningful partnerships that can foster policies, programs, and projects at the intersection of science and diplomacy (Fedoroff, 2009). One of the main objectives of science diplomacy is to influence international relations through the universal values of science (Ruffini, 2020) in countless (essential) issues.
Science diplomacy actions can be oriented to different objectives; for example, to advance scientific cooperation in the name of the greater good, improve science, technology, and innovation infrastructure, health or enhance national security (Piñeros-Ayala et al., 2022). According to Echeverría-King et al. (2021), science diplomacy in emerging economies can take different forms, but should be based on multi-stakeholder strategic alliances and policy mix. Namely, this is due to the emerging role of non-official actors in international relations, the asymmetric and growing power of citizens and civil society actors, and other changes in nature, time, and space where diplomats act (Pantović & Michelini, 2018, p. 244).
The science diplomacy concept has a historical background and is influenced by the foreign policy approaches and priorities of a given country. It should be borne in mind that science diplomacy therefore advances agendas of national and/or international interest, so it cannot be separated from political objectives and power (Dewi, 2023).
Even though science, technology and innovation have always been a tool used in international relations, its global relevance was gained in the face of imminent global challenges: climate change, migration, and pandemics such as Covid-19 (Melchor, 2020). As a consequence, in recent decades it was used not only to respond to such transnational challenges, but also to enhance resilience on a global scale.
Latin America has had incipient advances in the practice of science diplomacy, especially in terms of public policy for science diplomacy (Gual Soler, 2021); for instance, Panama and Peru have national guidelines for science diplomacy, which are led by their Ministries of Foreign Affairs. Therefore, Universities from this region cannot allow themselves to be isolated from this reality, since those institutions should respond to the development and needs of society, generating social values. Although there are both diplomats and academics (and many other groups, especially non-state actors) involved in the subject and there are documented cases of science diplomacy in the region, training in science diplomacy at the postgraduate level has not been developed.
In the case of Latin America, there are currently few science diplomacy courses, such as the School of Innovation Diplomacy and Science Diplomacy at the University of Sao Paulo, the UNESCO Chair in Diplomacy and Science Heritage at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México and virtual outreach courses such as those offered by the Universidad de Chile and the Universidad Externado de Colombia.
Additionally, there are some science diplomacy courses from other regions, such as: European Science Diplomacy Online Course S4D4C (Europe), the Science Diplomacy online course (DiploFoundation), the AAAS-TWAS Course on Science Diplomacy or the ITEC: Science Diplomacy (India). However, the courses are of short duration and are managed by non-university institutions. In addition, they vary in terms of the modality in which they are taught and the teaching methodologies used, as some (such as AAAS-TWAS or ITEC Science Diplomacy) seek to contribute to the generation of networks through face-to-face workshops. On the other hand, in the case of S4D4C or the course proposed by the DiploFoundation, they are offered as MOOCs that are self-managed and provide different resources and materials, such as videos, guides, among others. More details about some of the mentioned courses will be provided later in this chapter.