Teacher-Student Relationships Within the Context of Online Teaching and Learning: Challenges and Opportunities of Three Populations

Introduction

The use of online and virtual learning environments expanded throughout the 2000s in both K-12 and postsecondary settings. Several states required virtual learning prior to high school graduation (Smith et al., 2016). Health measures during the COVID-19 pandemic led to a greater proliferation of virtual learning as schools shifted to remote learning and students quarantined or isolated. During this period, schools invested in technology for online learning, making long-term implementation of virtual or hybrid learning increasingly viable on a large scale. The opportunities offered by innovative technology and the need for alternative instructional settings suggest that the growth trends that existed before the pandemic will likely accelerate in the coming years.

As more students experience virtual learning, it is important that school leaders and teacher educators prepare for the unique challenges presented by the platform. Teacher educators can help teachers develop digital teaching skills (Smith et al., 2016). Yates et al. (2021) examined the online experience of high school students in New Zealand, focusing on how much time students spent learning, the degree to which learning was personalized, and how students experienced independent, flexible, and collaborative opportunities. Students reported that the most significant challenge was motivation.

Several scholars have noted the importance of a strong, positive teacher-student relationship, linking it to student engagement, academic success, and overall student well-being (Quin, 2017; Spilt et al., 2012). However, in the virtual learning environment, research has described challenges to maintaining effective teacher-student relationships. Students in most virtual learning environments do not experience the same level of teacher interaction as in a traditional classroom (Gillett-Swan, 2017). In asynchronous settings, it takes longer for students to receive teacher feedback, eroding academic progress and teacher-student relationships (Jensen et al., 2021). Skinner et al. (2021) found that the student perception of teacher support appeared to affect changes in student engagement according to the degree students viewed themselves as competent, autonomous, and related to teachers. Skinner et al. (2021) examined in-person learning; however, few would deny the importance of the teacher-student relationship regardless of the instructional setting (e.g., online, distance, etc.). The increased need for student self-regulation in a virtual learning environment often results in lower student attendance, which reduces a teacher’s ability to build rapport with students. Paradoxically, it requires teachers to consider their relationships with students to ameliorate the challenges presented by virtual learning (Kiebler & Stewart, 2021).

Chiu (2021) implied that “students’ basic needs for learning in classrooms are the same in distance learning despite the lack of physical human interactions” and satisfying students’ needs resulted in a “stronger sense of relatedness to connect with teachers for communication” (p. S25). A growing body of literature has explored the nature of teacher-student relationships in virtual learning environments for specific populations of students with unique needs. This chapter will examine existing research on teacher-student relationships in virtual and hybrid settings. It will conclude with recommendations from the literature related to their impact on the following student populations:

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  English as a Second Language (ESL): The student’s primary or home language is not English and who need support to develop English skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

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  Learning Disabilities (LD): A condition in which issues with the student’s basic cognitive abilities impact specific academic areas like reading comprehension or math calculation.

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  Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A persistent condition that impacts social interaction, communication, and sensory processing, often manifesting in intense interests or repetitive behaviors.