Abstract
Post-secondary education serves as a transition between secondary education and the world of work for many individuals, including visiting international students and immigrants. These latter groups are present on campuses in the U.S. bringing varying goals and beliefs. However, little research or practice could be found to address the potential career development needs of this group. This chapter explores the role of gender, academic major, and familial influences on a sample of immigrant and international students' career development (n = 125). Participants completed STEM-specific measures of career interest and commitment. Data were analyzed for differences between Immigrant and International students, genders, and institution type, finding significant differences on four career development measures. Significant differences were also found between groups on three of the six contextual factors, and on comparisons to other diverse samples.
TopIntroduction
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) occupations are among the fastest growing and highest paid occupations in the U.S. (Fayer, Lacey, & Watson, 2017; National Science Board, 2020). Concerns about the lack of participation by women and minorities in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) are well-known, as are the challenges related to student persistence and graduation from these programs (National Science Foundation, 2019; Rowan-Kenyon, Inkelas, Garvey, & Robbins, 2012). Less well attended to are the challenges faced by immigrant and/or international students choosing to major in STEM subjects (Burrell, Fleming, Fredericks, & Burrell, 2015). Examples of the focus within the research literature has revealed several barriers immigrant students face, including: discrimination and stereotypes, integration into American educational system, limited resources, and parent-child conflict (Wang, 2008; Yeh et al., 2008). Access and cost of higher education was also found to be an additional barrier among immigrant students (Rocha-Tracy, 2009). There is currently a lack of literature examining career development of immigrant students in STEM fields. By further researching immigrant and international students in and outside of STEM, barriers unique to STEM fields may be revealed.
The focus on STEM career development has been aimed at identifying factors related to the under-representation of women and certain ethnic and racial minority groups in STEM fields (Lent et al., 2005). The present study is grounded in Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994, 2000), which offers a model accounting for various influences and processes involved in an individual’s career development, person inputs, learning experiences, and contextual influences on career development. The theory suggests that Person Inputs and Background Environmental Influences (sometimes referred to as Contextual Affordances, affect how one makes meaning of one’s learning experiences. These Learning Experiences are affected by ones Self-Efficacy Expectations and Outcome Experiences to affect one’s Interest in STEM Fields, Choice Goals, Choice Actions, as well as the actions and attainments in one’s chosen major or career. The Choice Goals and Choice Actions are influenced by the Supports and Barriers one experiences during the career decision-making and implementation process (Lent et al., 2005, 2003; Soldner et al., 2012). Much of the research using this theory has focused on the application of the Self-Efficacy construct or has utilized predominantly White samples (Flores, Navarro, Ali, 2017; Lent & Brown, 2006). For example, Lent et al. (2005) highlighted the need to examine relationships identified in the existing literature across gender and race-ethnicity in STEM areas.
This chapter will report on a study that investigated the differences between immigrant and international college students at an HBCU majoring in STEM fields. The study examined differences on STEM-specific measures of career development (Lent, et al., 2006) between genders and Engineering versus other STEM majors, as well as the effect of contextual factors variables. In addition, comparison to samples on the STEM-specific career development measures was conducted in order to provide policy guidance.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Immigrant Students: Are defined by the OECD (n.d.) as individuals who were either born outside of the U.S. or have at least one parent who was born outside of the U.S. For the purposes of this paper, first-generation immigrant students are those that were, themselves, born outside of the U.S. with at least one parent who were foreign-born. Likewise, second-generation students are those who were born in the U.S. and have at least one parent who was foreign-born.
Historically Black College or University (HBCU): “Any historically black college or university that was established prior to 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the education of black [ sic ] Americans, and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the Secretary [of Education] to be a reliable authority as to the quality of training offered or is, according to such an agency or association, making reasonable progress toward accreditation” (U.S. Higher Education Act of 1965, amended, 20 U.S.C. ch. 28 § 1001 et seq).
STEM: Is an acronym for “Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics”, as used by U.S. federal agencies (Granovskiy, 2018).
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT): Is a composite theory designed to explain how individuals develop career interests, make educational and vocational choices, as well as achieve success and/or satisfaction in work environments (Lent, 2013).
Learning Experiences: Are defined as social persuasion, vicarious learning, physiological arousal, and performance accomplishments (Lent et al., 1994, 2000).
Contextual Factors: In the context of the Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent, 2013; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2000), this term refers to both background influences (such as society norms, gender socialization, major social events, and role models) and internal influences (such as one’s network and/or support system, experience with discrimination) that shape one’s decisions, plans, and implementation of one’s career goal.
International Students: Individuals who matriculate into education institutions in a country other than that in which they hold citizenship in order to complete their educational goals. These students enter on a student visa and intend to return to their country of origin upon completion of their educational goal.
Career Development: According to Herr, Cramer, and Niles (2004) and Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey (2017), this term refers to the external factors (i.e., psychological, sociological, educational, chance, etc.) and the internal factors (interests, career identity, maturity, skills, etc.) that influence the skills and decisions one makes about one’s career and shape one’s career over the lifespan.