Abstract
Cancer is one of the most abundant lethal diseases globally threatening public health. There is considerable research effort on the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer. The current practices for cancer treatment are usage of synthetic chemicals (i.e. chemotherapy), radiotherapy, and surgery. Besides these conventional therapies, there are contemporary, innovative approaches, e.g., targeting of the drugs to the cancerous tissues, synergetic enhancement via simultaneous usage of conventional methods, and contemporary methods. Therefore, the process of drug research and development in the field of cancer is increasingly challenging, due to the limited success of current therapies and the constant need to find safer and more effective novel approaches. The utilization of nanotechnology may present new opportunities in cancer treatment. Metal nanoparticles prepared via “bottom-up” approach may be used for triggering the selective cell apoptosis mechanisms for cancerous cells, while sparing healthy cells considerably.
TopNanoparticles: Synthesis And Characterization
Nanoparticles (NPs) are formed by agglomeration of atoms and/or molecules with a size around or less than 100 nanometers (nm) at least in two dimensions (Klaine, et al. 2008; Vaid, et al., 2020). The NPs are appreciated for their relatively higher surface areas compared to the same amount of bulk material. The high surface area and small size of the NPs make them promising versatile applications. The high surface area increases their interaction with the surrounding media and makes them more interactive / reactive. The smaller size enables approaching / penetration of material to the fine microstructures / micropores. The NPs may be of different material types e.g., metals (e.g., silver (Ag), gold (Au), copper (Cu), platinum (Pt), ceramics (metal-oxides (e.g., iron oxide (FeO), zinc oxide (ZnO), magnesium oxide (MgO), metal-hydroxides (e.g., magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2)), or various organics / polymers and composites composed of inorganic and polymer structures.
The synthesis of NPs may be performed by two main approaches: “top-down” and “bottom-up”. The former approach consists of size reduction of bulk material to have smaller pieces of it. The size reduction may be performed with some mechanical / physical methods like grinding, milling, etc. “Top-down” approach may end-up with a very wide particle size range, decreasing the efficiency (i.e., the product may be composed of relatively coarse, micro, and nano particles). The later approach (“bottom-up”) is performed by atomic or molecular level precursors. The precursors are treated / reacted under controlled conditions to form / synthesize agglomerates with desired size. The methods following “bottom-up” approach may be exemplified as chemical precipitation, vapor deposition, sol-gel (Erdem & Çakır, 2022). The synthesis methods of NPs may further be classified as biological, physical (e.g., ball milling) and chemical methods (Vijayaram et al., 2023). The NPs with their superior properties like being antimicrobial, antifungal, catalytic, having high adsorption capability, may be used in various applications (e.g., chemical processes, biomedical applications, environmental applications).
Key Terms in this Chapter
Sustainability: The process of producing and using metal nanoparticles to treat cancer, considering the impact on the environment and the conservation of resources.
Metal Nanoparticles: Nanoparticles made of metals such as gold, silver etc.
Bottom-Up Synthesis: The construction of nanoparticles from smaller components or starting molecules.
Cancer Therapy: The treatment of cancer using various methods and approaches to prevent or eliminate malignant cells.
Synergistic Therapy: Combining different treatment techniques, such as chemotherapy and nanoparticle-based therapy, to increase the effectiveness of treatment is known as synergistic therapy.
Phytochemicals: Phytochemicals are organic substances that occur naturally in plants and can be used as stabilising and reducing agents in green synthesis.
Green Capping Agents: Green capping agents are natural compounds or polymers that can stabilise metal nanoparticles and protect them from aggregation and oxidation.
Cytotoxicity: Cell death or damage caused by a chemical.
Drug Resistance: A major obstacle in cancer treatment because it allows cancer cells to evolve and become resistant to therapy.
Green Synthesis: An environmentally friendly process that uses natural resources or environmentally safe reducing agents to create nanoparticles.
ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species): Highly reactive chemicals, such as free radicals, that cause oxidative stress and damage to cancer cells.
Nanoparticle Characterization: Analytical methods for determining the dimensions, content and surface properties of nanoparticles are known as nanoparticle characterisation.
Drug Delivery: The technique of delivering drugs to specific sites in the body to improve the effectiveness of treatment.
Biocompatibility: The ability of a substance to interact safely with biological systems.
Targeted Therapy: A medical strategy that selectively kills cancer cells while minimising damage to healthy cells.
Bio-Reduction: Bio-reduction is the conversion of metal ions into nanoparticles using biological agents such as bacteria or enzymes.
Apoptosis: A type of programmed cell death that is important for maintaining tissue homeostasis and is often targeted in cancer treatments.
Chemotherapy: The process of treating cancer by either destroying or slowing the growth of cancer cells using chemicals, often drugs.
Clinical Trials: Research projects involving human subjects to evaluate the efficacy and safety of new medical therapies.