Abstract
Cognitive biases play a crucial role in shaping human judgement and choices in the complex environment of decision making. This chapter provides a comprehensive examination of two prominent cognitive biases, groupthink bias, and polarisation bias. In this context, the importance of cognitive biases in decision-making processes is emphasised and placed in a rich research context. By meticulously detailing the methods and sources used in the research, the scope and main objectives of these biases are discussed, and a road map is endeavoured to be presented for a solution. This chapter has two aims: first, to elucidate the role and impact of cognitive biases in decision-making; and second, to provide a comprehensive analysis of two specific cognitive biases - groupthink bias and polarisation bias - and to provide a literature review on the subject, presenting a variety of different views and strategies for overcoming these biases. In addition, real-world examples provide vivid snapshots of how cognitive biases shape these areas.
TopIntroduction
Cognitive biases are biases that deeply influence both individual and collective judgements and play an important role in decision-making processes. They are systematic patterns of deviation from rationality and the norm, often resulting from the use of mental shortcuts and heuristics to simplify complex decision-making processes (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974).
Decision-making processes are shaped by rationality, norms and biases. Each of them significantly influences choices. According to Simon (1955), rational decision making involves the process of making decisions in a logical and systematic manner. Rationality serves as a framework for decision-making by encouraging individuals to analyse information objectively, consider alternatives and choose the option that maximises utility or satisfies their preferences. Rational decision making involves making choices consistent with one's goals, values and beliefs. It requires logical and systematic reasoning to reach the best possible conclusion based on available information. However, cognitive limitations, time constraints and decision complexity force individuals to use cognitive methods or mental shortcuts. The ideal of complete rationality can be affected by time constraints and cognitive limitations (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974).
Norms provide guidelines for acceptable behaviour for a group or society and provide a social framework for decision-making. In other words, norms guide behaviour and decision-making (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004). The desire for social approval or conformity within a community is the reason for conforming to these norms.
Norms serve as a social framework for decision-making and shape choices based on social expectations. Obeying these rules to gain approval, avoid penalties, or maintain social cohesion often influences decisions. While norms contribute to the social fabric, blind adherence can sometimes conflict with rational considerations or individual values, emphasising the need for a balanced approach.
Finding a balance between rationality, norms and biases requires recognising their strengths and limitations (Sunstein, 2015). A balanced approach encourages effective and well-rounded decision-making, taking into account both individual preferences and social expectations. Biases, as patterns of systematic deviation from norms or rationality, bring challenges to the decision-making process by influencing judgement through cognitive shortcuts or errors. Common biases, such as confirmation bias and availability bias, can distort perceptions and preferences, leading to sub-optimal decisions. For these reasons, recognising and reducing biases is crucial to improve decision quality.
In this context cognitive biases, which are critical for decision-making processes, shape the way we interpret available information, understand their interactions and reach conclusions. The importance of this research lies in uncovering the detrimental effects of cognitive biases on the quality and accuracy of decisions made by individuals, groups and societies.
Through comparative analyses, the parallels and distinctions between groupthink bias and polarisation bias form the backbone of this chapter, bringing to light common features, such as the influence of group dynamics, while clarifying their different consequences for decision-making.
The strength of groupthink and polarisation biases and the complex ways in which they coexist and intertwine within group dynamics are examined to provide insight into their combined impact on decision-making. Strategies to reduce and counter the effects of groupthink bias and polarisation bias are also summarised.
Key Terms in this Chapter
In-Group Bias: The preferential treatment or positive perception of individuals within one's own group Tajfel, H. (1982) AU95: The in-text citation "Tajfel, H. (1982)" is not in the reference list. Please correct the citation, add the reference to the list, or delete the citation. . Social psychology of intergroup relations.
Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that individuals use to simplify decision-making processes, often due to cognitive limitations or time constraints Gilovich, T., Griffin, D., & Kahneman, D. (2002) . “Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment.” Cambridge University Press.
Availability Bias: The tendency to give preference to information that is readily available or easily recalled when making judgments or decisions Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1972) AU89: The in-text citation "Tversky, A. (1972)" is not in the reference list. Please correct the citation, add the reference to the list, or delete the citation. . “Subjective Probability: A Judgment of Representativeness.” Cognitive Psychology, 3(3), 430–454.
Anchoring Bias: The tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered (the “anchor”) when making decisions Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974) . “Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases.” Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131.
Rational Decision-Making: A methodical and rational process for making decisions that entails assessing data to provide the best results possible given personal objectives and preferences Simon, H. A. (1955) AU97: The in-text citation "Simon, H. A. (1955)" is not in the reference list. Please correct the citation, add the reference to the list, or delete the citation. . “A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice.” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 69(1), 99–118.
Stereotypes: Stereotypes refer to the tendency to generalise about all members of a group of people Lippmann, W. (1922) AU98: The in-text citation "Lippmann, W. (1922)" is not in the reference list. Please correct the citation, add the reference to the list, or delete the citation. . Public Opinion. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.
Norms: Shared standards or guidelines for proper conduct within a community or society, which have an impact on people's decisions based on expectations from society Cialdini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. (2004) . “Social Influence: Compliance and Conformity.” Annual Review of Psychology, 55(1), 591–621.
Echo Chambers: Environments where people encounter only information that reinforces their existing beliefs. Pariser, E. (2011) AU92: The in-text citation "Pariser, E. (2011)" is not in the reference list. Please correct the citation, add the reference to the list, or delete the citation. . The filter bubble: What the Internet is hiding from you.
Media Literacy: The ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media in various forms. Sunstein, C. R. (2017) AU96: The in-text citation "Sunstein, C. R. (2017)" is not in the reference list. Please correct the citation, add the reference to the list, or delete the citation. . #Republic: Divided democracy in the age of social media.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preconceptions Nickerson, R.S. (1998) . Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises.
Group Polarisation: The tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members. Sunstein, C. R. (2002) AU94: The in-text citation "Sunstein, C. R. (2002)" is not in the reference list. Please correct the citation, add the reference to the list, or delete the citation. . The law of group polarisation.
Filter Bubbles: Intellectual isolation resulting from personalized searches, where a website algorithm selectively guesses what information a user would like to see Pariser, E. (2011) AU93: The in-text citation "Pariser, E. (2011)" is not in the reference list. Please correct the citation, add the reference to the list, or delete the citation. . The filter bubble: What the Internet is hiding from you.
Critical Thinking: The ability to think clearly and rationally, understanding the logical connection between ideas Halpern, D. F. (2016) AU91: The in-text citation "Halpern, D. F. (2016)" is not in the reference list. Please correct the citation, add the reference to the list, or delete the citation. . Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking.
Cognitive Biases: Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment, often influencing decision-making Kahneman, D. (2011) AU90: The in-text citation "Kahneman, D. (2011)" is not in the reference list. Please correct the citation, add the reference to the list, or delete the citation. . Thinking, fast and slow.