Abstract
This chapter discusses major contributions in research and professional assessment development and reviews key classifications in young language learner assessment (YLLA). Using the five-level metric (close, immediate, proximal, distal, and remote) by Ruiz-Primo et al., the authors classify assessments as curriculum aligned or non-aligned. Inequalities limiting access to learning and to opportunities for achievement (economic status, pre-primary education, digital environment) are linked to the five metrics. They review international examinations for YLLs (Cambridge, TOEFL, Pearson) and measure their alignment with an interactive and performative-enacted curriculum. Recommendations are given for separating external assessments as local or international in washback phenomena, for the inclusion of national assessment specialists in the research paradigm, and for greater attention to language assessment literacy in teacher training. The authors predict that increases in distance and digital learning will determine future forms of YLLA and exacerbate existing inequities.
TopIntroduction
Theoretically, the teaching, learning and assessment of language for young language learners (YLLs) are embedded in a common curricular matrix (Nikolov, 2016) where innovation in one triad requires a corresponding change—or alignment (Kinesh & Knight, 2013)—in the other two. This complex relationship between assessment and curricula for young learners has clearly emerged as a field for both research and professional assessment development (Bailey, 2017; Wolf & Butler, 2017; Inbar-Lourie & Shohamy, 2009; McKay, 2006; Papp, 2018 Rixon, 2016).
We define YLLs as bilingual/multilingual school pupils 6–12 years of age with varying social, linguistic and cultural backgrounds. While YLLs can refer to primary-age students in any ethnolinguistic setting, the vast majority worldwide form the primary school population in countries where English is taught as a foreign language and are specifically designated as Young English Language Learners (YELLs). Thus, for non-anglophone contexts, we use YLLS and YELLs interchangeably. Although these YLLs might not have met the world of high-stakes certifying examinations, they are generally familiar with internal testing in the school and some external testing from entities, such as school districts or ministries of education, in their own countries. Literature on characteristics of YLLs, such as minimal literacy and a short attention span requiring stimulating activities, and the effect these have on assessment design and methods (Hasselgreen, 2005; McKey, 2006; Bailey, 2017) has suggested the following demands be satisfied in preparing assessments of YLLs:
- 1.
Learning and assessment tasks should be interesting and appealing, with elements of games and fun because YLLs are still growing socially, cognitively, emotionally and physically. Assessment tasks influence their motivation and concentration spans, and their memories may restrict their ability to hold language in their minds for a longer duration.
- 2.
Different types of formative and summative assessments should be used in conformity with the capacities of learners and the expectations of parents and teachers. Assessments should also consider individual characteristics, needs and preferences in addition to contextual factors, such as cultural and linguistic background.
- 3.
Scaffolding should be provided in some assessment activities to support student learning and the carrying out of difficult tasks. YLLs are still developing literacy skills in their L1 and these skills may not transfer easily to their L2 learning, so scaffolding plays a major role in their assessment.
- 4.
The assessment tasks and feedback on these tasks should be designed in such a way that they highlight learners’ strengths and weaknesses, keeping in mind that young learners are vulnerable to failure and criticism.
In sum, the most effective and beneficial assessment for YLLs will be responsive to the purposes and uses of assessment; learners’ age; the context of instructions and assessments; the amount of YLL exposure to English; and the inferences made from the assessment results.
However, there are also a few concerns about assessment in general, and specifically standardized language testing, that are foundational to a discussion of Young Language Learner Assessment (YLLA, also YELLA). The first concern regards the process of assessment itself. Like the other classroom teaching and learning activities, assessment is not an event but numerous activities at once which involve grading, evaluating, and comparing students (Carless, 2007).
Further, there is evidence that assessment tasks are not always evenly distributed in courses, and examinations are often critiqued for requiring memorization and rote learning (Carless, 2007). We haven’t yet capitalized on the full potential of formative assessment and feedback processes (Black & Wiliam, 1998, 2018; Carless, 2007). While mindset theorists (Blackwell, Trezeniewski, & Dweck, 2007; Patterson, 2017) have documented the positive feedback in creating a growth mindset in children of all ages regarding learning and assessment tasks, research on mindset theory has only recently addressed second language learning (Lou & Noels, 2019).
Key Terms in this Chapter
Curricular Alignment: The assessment tasks are matched in type to the language learning activities experienced in the classroom.
Equity: The extent to which equal access to achievement is available to learners.
Teacher Training: The combination of course work and practical training provided to future educators.
Washback Theory: The effect of an examination on teaching and learning practices.
Enacted Curriculum: The student experience of teacher-provided learning activities in the classroom.
Opportunity for Achievement: Access to opportunities for achieving learning goals is a key term in educational/assessment equity. If any factor limits or prevents a learner’s access to learning, that learner is disadvantaged.
Primary Language Pedagogy: The pedagogical developments specifically created or adapted to enable primary-level students to learn languages.
Distance or Digital Learning: Learning that does not take place in a classroom environment but that is mediated over distance by electronic means, usually the Internet and learning platforms (digital). Non-digital forms of distance learning are radio broadcasts and televised educational programs.
YLLA: Assessments specifically designed to measure the language learning or the language proficiency of children ages 6–11 who study a second language.
Language Assessment Literacy: The knowledge and skills needed to provide useful assessments in language-learning contexts.