Abstract
The chapter provides an analytical framework for the concept of discrimination, that is, the different, unfair treatment of some people based on their actual or perceived membership in certain groups or social categories. Discrimination is referred to in the broader context of stigmatization, as the action-related component of the stigma process. After discussing several definitions of discrimination and outlining its main features, the different forms of discrimination are addressed and exemplified, such as direct and indirect discrimination, harassment, victimization. Also, the most relevant aspects regarding victims of discrimination are discussed, a special focus is given to the negative impact of discrimination on victims in terms of social and economic status, well-being, and health. Besides the threatening effects on individuals and groups, the consequences of discrimination on communities and society as a whole are also outlined. The final part of the chapter deals with the major anti-discrimination strategies that can be undertaken at the macro, mezzo, and microsocial levels.
TopIntroduction
“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood”. This is proclaimed by the Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights from 1948. And yet, not all individuals, without distinction, are granted the same fundamental rights and freedoms. Some people are treated differently from others, only based on criteria such as race, nationality, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age, social background, social class, religion, language, beliefs, health, body etc. To this different, unequal, unfair treatment refers the concept of discrimination, as opposed to equity. Discrimination means the illegal practice of treating some individuals less favourably than others because they are different on the basis of one or more of the above elements. It refers to any difference, exclusion, restriction or preference based on the criteria set out in the legislation.
This chapter addresses the topic of discrimination, providing a scientific framework for this phenomenon and the strategies to prevent and combat it. In the first part of the chapter a conceptual and analytical framework is outlined, discrimination being referred to and defined in the broader context of the process of stigmatization, more exactly as an integral part of the stigma process. In this regard, the link between, on the one hand, discrimination, as the action-related component of stigma process, that is, inequitable actions against some people, unfair behaviours towards them, their differentiation and separation based on certain criteria, and, on the other hand, the labelling process, stereotypes, and prejudices, as the attributional and attitudinal component of stigma process, is outlined, explained and exemplified. In addition to defining discrimination, the first part of the chapter approaches the forms of discrimination, that is, direct, indirect, structural, and multiple discrimination, harassment, bullying, mobbing, harm to the dignity of the person, victimization, as well as the order to discriminate. All these types of discrimination are defined and analysed in detail, and relevant examples are provided for each.
Furthermore, the most relevant aspects regarding victims and perpetrators of discrimination are discussed. Discrimination can have a significant negative impact on victims in terms of social and economic status, well-being and health. That is why the chapter deals further with the negative consequences of discrimination, both at an individual and at a group and community level. However, as discrimination has a threatening effect not only on individuals, groups and communities, but also on society as a whole, leading to economic dysfunctions, distortions of competition between companies and undermining social cohesion, its social and societal consequences are also addressed.
The final part of the chapter deals with the ways, measures and strategies to prevent and combat discrimination. Thus, the chapter discusses in this part the most common anti-discrimination strategies as regards both individuals, groups, communities, and society as a whole, including intervention strategies from the perspective of social work.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Anti-Discrimination Strategies: Approaches, actions, measures designed to prevent and combat discrimination. They can be conceived and implemented at macro, mezzo and micro social level.
Mobbing: Repetitive intimidating behaviours, persistent hostile attitude directed in a systematic way by one or more individuals mainly toward a target person, which is pushed into a helpless and defenceless position. While bullying is considered to be typically perpetrated by one person, mobbing may involve a group of people in the role of perpetrators.
Direct Discrimination: Treating unconcealed some people or groups different, unequal, unfair.
Bullying: Repeated or persistent negative acts and intrusive behaviours against one or more targets, such as refusal to value and acknowledge, constant trivial criticism, undermining, discrediting. The targets feel powerless and are exposed to these acts over a long time period.
Stigmatization: Associating a person with a stigma, i.e., a negative attribute that discredits her in society. It involves assigning the individual concerned to a certain socially disregarded group, which leads to social disapproval, loss or diminished status, marginalization, humiliation, exclusion. Being also referred as social stigma, it comprises labelling, stereotyping and prejudicing, differentiating, separating, and discrimination, when the power constellation allows this.
Indirect Discrimination: Treating unjust or excluding a person or category of persons from the benefit of a certain right by using allegedly neutral criteria. It refers also to any active or passive behaviour which, by its generated effects, subjects somebody to unfair or degrading treatment, favours or unduly disadvantages a person, a group of persons or a community towards others who are in equal situations.
Victimization: An adverse, detrimental treatment that comes as a reaction to an initiative of a person or group of persons to legally exercise her or their right not to be discriminated against.
Harassment: Negative, intrusive behaviours directed against a person or category of persons, creating an intimidating, hostile or degrading environment. It involves on the part of the perpetrator repetitive, unwanted and unwelcome acts, that may range from mildly unpleasant remarks to physical violence.
Discrimination: Treating a person or a group differently, less favourably than others because they are different on the basis of one or more criteria. As it refers to an unequal, unfair treatment, it is opposed to the concept of equity.
Multiple Discrimination: Treating differently, unfair a person or a group of persons based on two or more criteria of discrimination, cumulatively.
Stalking: Form of harassment that includes intrusive acts such as regular following the target, persistent watching, repeated unsolicited contact or gifts, etc.
Sexual Harassment: Undignified exposure to unwanted behaviour of a sexual nature or connotation, ranging from unwelcome sexual attention and sexism, to sexual assault. It can be verbal, non-verbal, and physical.
Structural Discrimination: Form of discrimination that occurs when the very structures and mechanisms of society function in a discriminatory way or contain elements that elusively, though clearly, disadvantage certain people or groups of people.