Women continue facing systemic barriers impeding their leadership advancement spanning stereotypes, biases, and institutional traditions requiring coordinated solutions between corporations, governments, and civil society. This chapter analyzes multidimensional hurdles using interdisciplinary research on role congruity, think-manager-think-male notions, talent pipeline leaks, and socioeconomic constraints. Solutions prioritize allyship building, capability development, policy reforms, and collective accountability across stakeholders toward leveling leadership gender gaps.
TopLiterature Review
A significant body of academic research has examined the enduring gender leadership gap and underlying systemic barriers facing women in rising to upper echelons of organizations and public life. Key frameworks and theories that have emerged from across disciplines to explain women’s underrepresentation in leadership include role congruity theory, glass ceiling effect, leaky pipeline concept, lack of critical mass, think manager–think male paradigm and second generation bias notions (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Hymowitz & Schellhardt, 1986; Kanter, 1977; Schein,1973).
Role congruity theory posits that perceived incongruity between qualities ascribed to women based on female gender roles versus those expected in leadership roles gives rise to prejudice triggering bias in leadership selection and evaluation processes obstructing women’s advancement (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Experimental studies informed by this theory have affirmed gender biases in leadership context with women leaders rated as less favorable on perceived effectiveness, hireability and competence perceptions compared to male counterparts when assessed on identical leadership behaviors or track records. Such biases were found pronounced for male-dominated leadership domains like the military, clergy and corporate settings.
The metaphorical glass ceiling effect conveys invisible but real barriers arising from attitudinal and organizational prejudices that block women’s vertical mobility to senior management layers (Hymowitz & Schellhardt, 1986). Women are able to enter professional and management streams but their careers plateau earlier compared to male peers preventing further advancement. Research indicates this glass ceiling also disproportionately limits upward progression of minority women facing multiple boundings from racial, ethnic and gender biases reflected in significantly lower representation at senior levels (Beckwith et al., 2016; Holder et al., 2015).
Kanter (1977) applied critical mass theory to describe how women’s underrepresentation in elite leadership groups reinforces dominant male models of leadership and minimizes women’s visibility, voice and influence in shaping organizational priorities. As “solos” or “tokens”, women often experience social isolation, performance pressures and exaggerated scrutiny. Achieving a threshold 30% representation enables shifting group dynamics toward more equitable participation. Yet most countries show severe under-representation of women on corporate boards and executive committees falling under the critical mass threshold.