Abstract
Human mortality due to drug-resistant infections is becoming more prevalent in our society. Antibiotics are impotent due to abuse and/or misuse, leading to new, more expensive, and more effective medicines and treatments. Therefore, it causes many short-term and long-term side effects in the patient. On the other hand, nanoparticles have exhibited antibacterial activity against various pathogens due to their small size and ability to destroy cells by various mechanisms. Unlike antibiotics for the treatment of patients' diseases and infections, nanomaterials provide an exciting way to limit the growth of microorganisms due to infections in humans. This has led to the development of a number of nanoparticles as active antibacterial agents. Therefore, the authors have carefully reviewed the recent developments in the use of nanomaterials for antibacterial applications and the mechanisms that make them an effective alternate antibacterial agent.
TopBackground
NPs have become a unique and novel tool to overcome many bacterial diseases that arise from the misuse of antibiotics. Using nanoparticles could reduce antimicrobial resistance because they can act as antimicrobial agents and react with the cell wall instead of entering the cell. The use of NPs is a targeted, effective, and safe approach in pharmacotherapy (Fernando et al., 2018). There is a higher rate of infections globally and loss of economy due to these diseases, but the reversal is being observed due to development of the advanced medicine in the form of NPs (Shi et al., 2014). The NPs are effective and safer than traditional antibiotics, as well as they do not produce any hazardous byproduct.
In a report, it was mentioned that antimicrobial resistance is a crisis for the health and wealth of nations (Neill, 2014). In 2014, the death rate was 700,000, but it was estimated that the death rate would increase up to 10 million in 2050, and in that case, the cost being used will increase up to 100 trillion US dollars (Huh & Kwon, 2011). In these days, ‘superbugs’ are being developed, which have formed an excellent resistance against antibiotics and created a lot of trouble for the researchers. Hence, it has become necessary to overcome these resistances and set up some balance between the death rate and the economy being used on healthcare tools (Gardini et al., 2018). NPs could withstand harsh conditions like sterilizing temperature, shelf life on different materials such as fabric, polymer, etc. and are more competent against microbial resistance, toxicity, and much more cost-effective. Moreover, many of the NPs not only kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria but also prove effective against viruses and fungi (Dizaj et al., 2014; Lemire et al., 2013) therefore, can be used as an efficient tool for many purposes like disinfectant for water, surfaces, and medical apparatus. As it clear from the studies that antimicrobial NPs are inert and are not oxidative in water so, they are safe and could not produce harmful byproducts as ClO3 (Chlorate), BrO3 (Bromate), and THMs (Trihalomethane i.e., dibromochloromethane CHBr2Cl) (Gardini et al., 2018). In this concern, a brief review on the origin and types of nanoparticles, the mechanism of different antimicrobial nanoparticles, their multiple advantages and disadvantages are given below.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Nanoparticles: The nanoparticle (NP) is a small particle ranging in size from 1 to 100 nm, and invisible to the human naked eye. Sometimes, it is just made up of one of the few hundred atoms, and it possess different physical and chemical properties as compare to the bulky one.
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS): An oxygen containing unstable molecule which react with other molecules in a cell that causes damage to the DNA, proteins and leads to cell death. They are present in free radical form like peroxides, superoxide, singlet oxygen, etc.
Goniochromism: It is also known as Iridescence, a process of surface that changes colors whenever it alters its angle of view. It produces multiple of colors while pearlescence produce white color.
Engineered Nanoparticles: Engineered nanomaterials are made by the researcher for special size, shape and functionality; these are not made by nature or accindently, they are larger than 1 nm and smaller than 100 nm.
Graphene Nanostructures: It is a two-dimensional (2D) element composed of carbon atoms packed in a honeycomb lattice. It has excellent mechanical, electronic and thermal properties. For example, nanoribbons, etc.
Phytochelatins: Enzyme phytochelatin synthase produces polymer of phytochelatins, found in plants, nematodes, algae, cyanobacteria and fungi. It is very useful for the detoxification of heavy metals.
Chitosan: Chitosan is a decomposable, biocompatible polymer is considered as nontoxic, and safe for human digestion and medical use. It is also used as a carrier for drug delivery via various route of administration.