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In response to new workforce skill requirements emerging over the past few decades, the goals and objectives of a “new vocationalism” shifted from specific training for work to a more rigorous academic/technical grounding focused on preparation for careers for all students (Hernández-Gantes, Phelps, Jones, & Holub, 1995; Kemple & Snipes, 2000; Levesque & Hudson, 2003a, 2003b; Levesque, Laird, Hensley, Choy, Cataldi, & Hudson, 2008;
Levesque, Lauen, Teitelbaum, Alt, & Librera, 2000; Silverberg, Warner, Fong, & Goodwin, 2004). The underlying premises of career and technical education (CTE) has emphasized an increased rigor in vocational programs, a shift to high-wage and high-tech career preparation, and increased integration with academic education to support further preparation for post-secondary education or work (Levesque & Hudson, 2003a; Levesque & Hudson, 2003b; Levesque et al., 2008; Levesque et al., 2000; Silverberg et al., 2004).
As a result of the shift to prepare all students for college and careers, CTE program areas experienced considerable enrollment transformations over the past two decades. While still popular in the mid-1990s, trade and industry related programs suffered a marked decline in enrollments, while at the same time, enrollment in programs focused on communications, health care, and technology nearly doubled (Levesque et al., 2000). This shift in enrollment led more students away from the general education pathway to one aligned with preparation for either college or work.
Historically, students considered to be low achieving and not headed for college following high school graduation were often tracked in occupational programs (Agodini & Deke, 2004; Agodini, Uhl, & Novak, 2004; Levesque & Hudson, 2003a, 2003b; Levesque et al., 2008; Levesque et al., 2000; Silverberg et al., 2004). As the field has changed in the last two decades with emerging program designs such as career academies, students participating in CTE programs have become more eclectic and diverse with nearly one in five students transitioning to post-secondary institutions earning a minimum of a bachelor’s degree (Silverberg et al., 2004). That is, students across the country were enrolling in more academic and college-prep courses due in part to increased high school graduation requirements (Levesque & Hudson, 2003b; Levesque et al., 2008; Levesque et al., 2000).