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Top1. Introduction
Modern cities can be described as intricate systems, characterized by substantial populations of interconnected residents, a wide array of businesses, diverse transportation methods, communication networks, various services, and public utilities. The growth in population and urbanization brings forth a multitude of challenges, encompassing technical, social, economic, and organizational issues, all of which have the potential to undermine the economic and environmental sustainability of these cities (Neirotti et al., 2014). The concept of a Smart City (Hollands, 2008) has gained increasing attention and is now presented as a new paradigm for intelligent urban development and sustainable socio-economic growth. A smart city refers to a city that utilizes Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and other digital means to enhance the quality of life of its citizens, improve the efficiency of urban services, and reduce their environmental impact. Smart cities have become relevant in urban policy as a recognition of the potentially transformative role that advanced information technology will play in city operations as the 21st century progresses (Chin & Guthrie, 2023). Crucial questions that urban literature must systematically address include who decides what makes a city smart and for whom that smart city is intended. Smart cities aim to be more sustainable, efficient, and liveable by integrating data and technology into the management of urban systems. This includes infrastructure such as transportation, energy, waste management, security, health, education, and other public services. Consequently, smart city projects require complex coordination of resources (Gupta et al., 2023). The concept of a smart city is promoted to address local sustainability challenges, and smart city strategies are used to support urban sustainability transitions (Clement et al., 2023).
A smart city leverages information and technology to provide a more innovative, connected, and efficient urban environment for its citizens. There is consensus that smart cities are characterized by the widespread use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), which help cities use their resources more efficiently in various urban domains (Albino et al., 2015). However, ICT-based solutions are only part of the resources used for projects and planning approaches aimed at improving a city's economic, social, and environmental sustainability. Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) are crucial in the context of intelligent transportation and smart cities, as they enable efficient integration of technology and physical infrastructure to enhance mobility, sustainability, and quality of life (Rai & Sahu, 2020). In essence, Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) aim to establish a novel mode of integrated interaction with humans by leveraging computational and physical capabilities, encompassing intricate, intelligent, and autonomous systems. Artificial Intelligence (AI) stands out as a highly promising technology poised to find applications in a myriad of next-generation integrated systems, spanning CPS, security, and communication within the context of smart cities (Kim & Ben-Othman, 2020).
The advent of these new technologies is ushering in innovative avenues to navigate the current landscape characterized by evolving and unpredictable market requirements. In this dynamic environment, Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) are emerging as one of the most promising and transformative technological concepts, offering new possibilities for addressing the challenges and demands of the contemporary era (Napoleone et al., 2020). The literature considers CPS to be fundamental components of future smart factories. Cyber-Physical Systems are characterized by their ability to integrate the physical world with the information or cyber world. Their deployment in critical infrastructures has shown the potential to transform the world (Olowononi et al., 2021), and although preventing CPS from suffering adversarial attacks is becoming increasingly challenging, the focus should be on making CPS resilient. It is worth highlighting the robustness of the Cyber-Physical System, consisting of interdependent physical and computational resources (Peng et al., 2020). Numerous infrastructure systems can evolve into Cyber-Physical Systems, such as smart electrical grids, traffic control systems, and wireless sensor and actuator networks, depending on their interdependent networks that provide information or energy to operate.