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Globally, elections are the platforms for recruiting political officeholders in a democracy. An election is thus the hallmark of democracy, and it is integral for a democratic society to remain stable (Chukwuma, 2022; Ojo, 2007). Elections allow the electorates to choose who should govern them peacefully (Shaapera & Yusufu, 2019; Yusufu, 2021). Elections also enable the people to indicate their preference among the policies and programs advanced by rival leadership elements contesting for political power (Ayeni-Aleke, 2008). Citing Harrop and Miller (1987), Kassem and Osasona (2020) note that elections are a mechanism through which politicians can be called to account for their actions and be forced to introduce policies that reflect public opinion. Casting votes during an election is a powerful weapon to elect contestants judged to have good track records; it can also be used to vote out those leaders who fail to fulfill their campaign promises (Onah, 2020). In this manner, ultimate ruling power resides in the masses that elect and control their representatives through established modes of accountability (Olisa et al., 1991). According to Obakhedo (2011), an election is an integral part of a democratic process that enables the citizenry to determine who should lead them at every level of government and make decisions that shape a socioeconomic and political destiny; if they falter, citizens still possess the power to recall them or vote them out in the next election.
As important as elections are in a democracy, elections in Nigeria are often fraudulent and violent, which are severe problems for an emerging democracy (Akpan, 2017; Awofeso & Odeyemi, 2016; Etim et al., 2019; Nwagwu, 2016; Shaapera et al., 2014; Shaapera & Yusufu, 2021). Elections in Nigeria have involved a combination of issues ranging from shootings during elections, a resurgence of armed gangs, the carting away of ballot boxes, the buying of votes, an arms race in the electoral process, gangsterism, thuggery, and hooliganism (Olurode, 2013). Elections in Nigeria are thus habitually subverted by political parties and politicians through the illegal use of money, physical force, and governmental patronage, deployed through the intermediary known as the “godfathers” (Adeyemi, 2004). Because of the high premium placed on political power, electoral malpractices have become a feature of Nigeria's electoral process; this has caused a loss of confidence in the democratic process and the erosion of the credibility and integrity of the electoral process (Alvarez et al., 2009; Audu & Akuva, 2020). Given that winning state power gives access to the acquisition of wealth, the capture of this state power has inevitably become a matter of life and death (Ake, 1964, 2001; Obadahun & Nzeako, 2020; Shaapera & Yusufu, 2021). Electoral malpractice has more severe political implications, allowing a party or candidate to take over public positions against the popular will (López-Pintor, 2010). Consequently, in these cases, the democratic process is undermined, which usually leads to electoral violence, insecurity, and political instability (Alebiosu, 2016). This thus constitutes a significant threat to the survival of democracy (Adesote & Abimbola, 2014).